Thin film shape memory alloy device and method

ABSTRACT

A thin film device, such as an intravascular stent, is disclosed. The device is formed of a seamless expanse of thin-film (i) formed of a sputtered nitinol shape memory alloy, defining, in an austenitic state, an open, interior volume, having a thickness between 0.5-50 microns, having an austenite finish temperature A f  below 37° C.; and demonstrating a stress/strain recovery greater than 3% at 37° C. The expanse can be deformed into a substantially compacted configuration in a martensitic state, and assumes, in its austenitic state, a shape defining such open, interior volume. Also disclosed is a sputtering method for forming the device.

RELATED APPLICATION DATA

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.12/357,104, which was filed Jan. 21, 2009, which is a continuation ofU.S. application Ser. No. 11/027,814, which was filed on Dec. 28, 2004,now abandoned, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.10/345,782, which was filed on Jan. 16, 2003, now abandoned, which is adivisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/768,700, which was filed onJan. 24, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,533,905, issued on Mar. 18, 2003,which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No.60/177,881, filed on Jan. 24, 2000, and to U.S. Provisional ApplicationSer. No. 60/211,352, filed on Jun. 13, 2000, all of which areincorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention herein is directed to a method of fabricating thin-filmdevices from a shape memory alloy, and to space-filling devices, e.g.,intravascular devices, made by these methods.

REFERENCES

-   J. D. Busch and A. D. Johnson, Shape-memory Alloy Microactuator,    U.S. Pat. No. 5,061,914; 29 Oct., 1991.-   P. Krulevitch, A. P. Lee, P. B. Ramsey, J. C. Trevino, J.    Hamilton, M. A. Northrup, Thin Film Shape Memory Alloy    Microactuators, J. Micromech. Microeng. Vol. 5, No. 4, December    1996.-   D. Johnson, Vacuum-Deposited TiNi Shape Memory Film:    Characterization and Applications in Micro-Devices, J. Micromech.    Microeng. Vol. 1, (1991) 34-41.-   L. M. Schetky, Shape-Memory Alloys, Scientific American, November    1979, pages 74-82.-   Hiroyasu Funakubo, ed., Shape Memory Alloys, Gordon and Breach    Publishers, 1984 Translated by J. B. Kennedy.-   P. Dario, M. C. Montesi, Shape Memory Alloy Microactuators for    Minimally Invasive Surgery, Proceedings, of SMST-94 conference,    Asilomar Calif., March 1994.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Medical implants are increasing in use in minimally invasive surgerybecause of the improved medical results attainable. In particular,intravascular stents are used to reinforce blood vessels to promotehealing and to prevent stenosis (narrowing) of blood vessels followingprocedures such as angioplasty. Alloys of titanium nickel (TiNi orNitinoi shape memory alloy) are gaining popularity over more traditionalmetals such as stainless steel for use in medical implants because theproperties of shape memory and superelasticity enable improvements indesign- and methods of deployment of these devices. Demonstratedbiocompatibility and novel methods of fabrication have resulted in wideacceptance of orthodontic braces, catheter guidewires, surgical tools,and implantable coronary stents.

Fabrication of stents from drawn TiNi tubes is practical only for alimited range of sizes. In particular, it has not been feasible to makestents having the flexibility and size required for deliveryintravascularly through small catheters via the carotid arteries.

There is a growing demand for smaller and thinner, more flexible stentsthat can be surgically implanted or delivered via catheter, into smalldiameter, highly tortuous blood vessels. Suitably flexible structurescan be fabricated of thin film (2-10 micrometers thick) shape memoryalloys that are sputter deposited on a substrate and heat treated.Composition and heat treatment affect the phase transition temperatureof the alloy, which in turn determines whether it exhibits shape memoryor superelastic properties.

For maximum effectiveness, an intracranial device should be installedthrough a small diameter catheter, then changed to a pre-determinedshape so as to fill a space and apply continuous outward pressureagainst the blood vessel wall. To accomplish this, three-dimensionalshapes such as cylinders, cones, and hemispheres are required, and ashape-changing capability is highly advantageous.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention includes, in one embodiment, a thin film device comprisinga seamless thin-film expanse (i) formed of a sputtered Nitinol shapememory alloy; (ii) defining, in an austenitic state, an open, interiorvolume; (iii) having a thickness between 0.5-100, preferably 2-50microns; (iv) having an austenite finish temperature A_(f) below 37° C.;and (v) demonstrating a stress/strain recovery greater than 3% at 37° C.The expanse can be deformed into a substantially compacted configurationin a martensitic state, and assumes, in its austenitic state, a shapedefining such open, interior volume. The expanse may have, for example,a cylindrical, hemispherical or sock-like shape

The device may include a skeletal member to which the expanse isattached, and these members may have a thickness greater than thethickness of the expanse. In addition, the expanse may be fenestratedwith a selected pattern of openings in the thin film

In another aspect, the invention includes a method of forming thethin-film device. The method includes the steps of placing in amagnetron sputtering device, a mandrel having an exposed, etchable outerlayer that corresponds to the open, interior volume of the device to beformed, providing the sputtering apparatus with a TiNi alloy targetcomposed of between 45-55% each of titanium and nickel, and sputterdepositing material from the target adjacent said mandrel underlow-pressure, low-oxygen conditions. During the deposition, the mandrelis moved relative to said target, to achieve substantially uniformsputter deposition over the entire exposed surface of the mandrel, andthe deposition is continued until a desired sputtered film thicknessbetween 0.5 and 100 microns, preferably 2 and 50 microns, is formed onthe mandrel

Following sputter deposition, the thin film on the mandrel is heatedunder annealing conditions. The thin-film device so formed is thenreleased from the mandrel, typically by exposing the mandrel anddeposited thin film to an etchant, under conditions effective todissolve the outer layer of the mandrel. The mandrel's outer layer maybe a separate coating formed on the mandrel surface, or the surface ofthe mandrel itself. The mandrel may be coated with a smooth surface suchas polyimide before sputtering to ensure a continuous layer of depositedmaterial.

The target has a preferred composition of between about 48 to 51 atomicpercent nickel to 52 to 49 atomic percent titanium. Where thesacrificial layer material is chromium, aluminum, or copper, and theetchant may be a chrome etch, potassium hydroxide, and nitric acid.

The mandrel is preferably rotated during the sputtering step to achievesubstantially uniform sputter deposition over the entire exposed surfaceof the mandrel.

In various embodiments the mandrel may be cylindrical, e.g., forproducing a thin-film stent, sock-like, e.g., for producing anintravascular filter, or hemispherical, e.g., for producing avaso-occlusive device.

The method may further include applying structural members to themandrel, prior to depositing the thin film thereon, to form structuralmembers in the formed device. For use in forming a fenestrated thin-filmdevice, the method may further include forming on the annealed thinfilm, an resist layer containing a pattern of openings, exposing thecoated thin film with a solvent under conditions effective to createfenestrations in the thin film corresponding to the pattern of openings,and removing the resist layer. The fenestrations may have dimensions andinterfenestration spacings in the 10-50 micron range.

These and other objects and features of the invention will be more fullyappreciated when the following detailed description n of the inventionis read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-1D illustrate steps in practicing the method of the invention;

FIG. 2 shows a resistivity versus temperature curve of a TiNi thin-filmexpanse formed in accordance with the invention;

FIG. 3 illustrates a stress-strain curve for TiNi thin film at 37° C.;

FIG. 4 illustrates a thin-film solid-wall stent constructed inaccordance with an embodiment of the invention;

FIGS. 5 and 6 illustrate open and folded states of the stent of FIG. 4,respectively, as seen in front-on view;

FIG. 7 illustrates a sock-like thin-film device formed in accordancewith another embodiment of the invention

FIG. 8 illustrates a hemispherical device formed in accordance withstill another embodiment of the invention; and

FIG. 9 illustrates a stent with a fenestrated thin-film expanse formedin accordance with the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION I. Definitions

Unless indicated otherwise, the terms below have the following meanings:

“A shape defining an open, interior volume” refers to an expanse thatdefines an open volume-containing space, e.g., a cylindrical, sock-likeor hemispherical volume-containing space.

“Seamless thin-film expanse” means an expanse that forms an openinterior volume without edge-to-edge seams.

“Nitinol” or “TiNi” refers to an alloy containing titanium and nickel,typically each between 45-55 atom percent, and optionally, other metals,such as chromium in relatively minor amount, e.g., 1-5 atom percent.

“Shape memory alloy” is an alloy that displays thermoelastic martensitictransformation defined as the ability to undergo a reversibletransformation from an austenite to a martensite with a change intemperature such that an article made from such alloy has a heat stableconfiguration and is capable of being deformed to a heat unstableposition.

“Austenitic state” refers to the stronger, higher temperature phase(crystal structure) present in a shape-memory alloy.

“Austenite finish temperature A_(f)” refers to the temperature at whicha shape memory alloy finishes transforming martensite to austenite uponheating.

“Martensitic state” refers to the more deformable, lower temperaturephase (crystal structure) present in a shape-memory alloy.

“Sputtered alloy” refers to an alloy formed by sputter depositing atarget-material alloy on a substrate, such as a mandrel.

“Low-pressure, low-oxygen conditions” refers to sputtering conditions inwhich the pressure is preferably below 10⁻⁵ Torr, typically 10⁻⁶ to 10⁻⁸Torr, and the predominant gas is an inert gas such as argon. The amountof oxygen is kept low, e.g., below 0.1 percent, by the low pressure andlow oxygen content of the sputter target alloy.

“Etchable” with reference to a mandrel surface means refers to a surfacelayer, either part of the mandrel or a coating thereon, that can beremoved by exposure to a dissolving agent, e.g., etchant.

II. Method of Forming a Thin-Film Expanse

FIGS. 1A-1D illustrate steps in forming a thin-film device in accordancewith one aspect of the invention. The basic components employed in themethod include a mandrel 10 having an outer exposed surfacecorresponding to the open, interior volume of the device to be formedThe mandrel may have a variety of volume-defining surfaces, such ascylindrical, ellipsoidal, hemispherical, tapered cylindrical, andconical volume shapes, and may be constructed of a variety of materials,such as steel, glass, or silicon. The dimensions of the mandrel aredictated by the dimensions of the desired thin-film device to be formed.

The mandrel is preferably polished, and may be coated with a materialsuch as polyimide to produce a smooth, regular surface on which todeposit shape memory alloy. In one exemplary embodiment, the mandrel iscoated with a three micron thick layer of pyralin polymer resin liquidcoating type PI2611 (also known as polyimide coating) obtained from HDMicrosystems, by spinning the mandrel to create a thin uniform layer,curing the high-temperature polymer coating in successive steps ofbaking at 150° C., then curing at 250° C. and finally curing at 450-500°C. to cross-link the polymer.

The mandrel may be formed of a material that itself has an etchablesurface, such as such as one formed of silicon, that can be removed uponexposure to an etchant, or may be formed of a material, such as NaCl,KCl, NaF₂, which are available in flat or cylindrical shapes, and whichcan be shaped by machining and polishing. These substrates can bedissolved directly, e.g., with an aqueous solvent, without the need ofan etchable coating.

Where the mandrel is formed of a material that is itself not easilyetchable, it is preferably coated with an etchable outer sacrificiallayer 14, e.g., formed over a polyimide coating. Layer 14 on the mandrelis preferably metal such as chromium or other material having a highlyspecific etch rate relative to TiNi so that the sacrificial layer may beremoved without damaging the TiNi thin film. It is preferred that thelayer used not diffuse readily into TiNi during heat treatment.Alternative sacrificial layers include aluminum, copper, and photoresistsuch as SU8 and OCG825. An etchant such as potassium hydroxide used foretching aluminum, nitric acid used for etching copper, and Chrome Etchfrom Arch Chemicals Inc. containing ceric ammonium nitrate, nitric acid,and water. The etchant may be an aqueous solution for water-solublemandrels, such as the salt mandrels noted above.

The sacrificial layer may be formed by conventional thin-film depositionmeans, such as vacuum thermal evaporation, electroplating, orsputtering, to form a sacrificial layer preferably less than 1 micron inthickness. In one embodiment, a chromium layer is applied to a thicknessof about of 0.1 micron by the sputter deposition method detailed below,but where the target is chromium rather than a TiNi alloy.

The mandrel is mounted on mandrel holder 12 for rotation thereon in thedirection of arrow 13 in FIG. 1B. The mandrel holder includes amandrel-support rod 12 a, and a motor 12 b for rotating the mandrel at adesired speed, e.g., 0.5 to 2 rpms, during sputter deposition.

Also shown in the figures is a sputter deposition target 18 composed ofa nickel-titanium shape-memory alloy, preferably nearly 50 atomicpercent Ti, 50 atomic percent nickel, and containing minimal impuritiesespecially carbon and oxygen. Composition control is critical toobtaining TiNi having appropriate shape memory and superelasticqualities. Increasing the content of nickel lowers the transitiontemperature. As little as 0.1% oxygen renders the film product brittleand unusable. The target may include minor amounts, e.g., 1-5 atomicpercent, of other metals, e.g., chromium or platinum, known to effectthe behavior of TiNi shape-memory alloys is specific ways.

In particular, the target is preferably selected to produce in thethin-film expanse, an austenite finish temperature A_(f) less than 37°C. characterized by a four-point resistivity measurement in which thetemperature is cycled to above 100° C. and below 0° C.; and astress/strain recovery curve characterized by greater than 3% at 37° C.One exemplary target is composed of a nickel-titanium shape-memoryalloy, preferably 46.75 weight percent Ti and 53.25 weight percent Ni,and less than 200 parts per million oxygen; formed by vacuum aremelting. The alloy composition may be enriched in nickel by as much as1-2 percent to lower the transition temperature, and heat treatment suchas rapid thermal anneal followed by heat-soaking at a loweredtemperature may be employed as a method of obtaining specialstress-strain-temperature characteristics.

The target has exemplary diameter and thickness dimensions of 20 cm by0.6 cm, respectively. The target is placed in the sputtering apparatusapproximately 3-5 cm from the mandrel and parallel to the axis of themandrel, as shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B.

The mandrel and target are contained in a conventional high-vacuumsputtering apparatus, indicated at 16 in FIGS. 1A and 1B. The apparatusmay be any of a number of known sputtering systems that employ a directcurrent magnetron or radio frequency sputtering source. One exemplaryapparatus is a Perkin-Elmer PE4400 series sputtering system.

In operation, the coated mandrel and target are placed in the vacuumchamber of the sputtering apparatus, and sputter deposition is carriedout in a vacuum of low 10⁻⁷ Torr base pressure using a single TiNi DCmagnetron target, argon gas, and a 5 kW DC power supply. High vacuum isnecessary to minimize the oxygen (and other contaminants).Alternatively, the mandrel may be placed in a cylindrical magnetronsputtering system for deposition of TiNi.

Sputter deposition is carried out until a selected thickness ofthin-film expanse of between 0.5-100, preferably 2-50 microns isachieved. During deposition, film thickness may be determined bymeasuring the time of deposition and comparing to calibrated samplesthat are measured by a Tencor Alpha-Step profilometer. Alternatively,film thickness may be measured by placing a piezoelectric crystaladjacent to the target and monitoring its resonant frequency duringdeposition.

As can be appreciated from the sputtering configuration shown in FIG.1B, deposition onto the rotating mandrel is effective to produce asubstantially uniform thickness of deposited thin film on the exposedsurface of the mandrel, that is, the surface region directly exposed tothe target.

When a desired film thickness is reached, the sputter deposition step isterminated, and the thin-film expanse on the mandrel is then annealedunder heating/cooling conditions to achieve desired shape-memory alloyproperties in the device. The annealing step may be by thermal heatingor by exposure to an infrared heater in vacuum. Use of infrared heatingpermits rapid heating and cooling so that sacrificial layers such asaluminum may be used, and solvent-removable sacrificial layers such asphotoresist. In a typical annealing process, the thin-film expanse isheated in vacuum at 500-550° C. for 20 minutes followed by gradualcooling to ambient temperature. For heat treatment the mandrel isenclosed in a stainless steel fixture to ensure uniform heating.

Following annealing, the thin-film device must be released from themandrel. This is done preferably by exposing the mandrel and thin-filmdevice thereon to a dissolving agent, e.g., etchant, to remove the outermandrel layer or the sacrificial layer formed thereon. The step is shownin FIG. 1C, where sacrificial layer 14 (FIGS. 1A and 1B) is removed bythe etchant. The mandrel with its two or more layers of deposits isimmersed in liquid etchant at room temperature and allowed to soak untilthe TiNi layer is freed from the surface. The time may vary from one to24 hours depending on the degree of fenestration of the TiNi, thethickness of the sacrificial layer, and the degree of agitation appliedto the mandrel. Ultrasonic power may be used to accelerate action of theetchant.

At the end of the etching period, the coated mandrel is washed and thethin-film expanse is removed from the mandrel. This step is shown inFIG. 1D, showing a thin-film stent 22 formed in accordance with themethod.

For many applications it will be desirable to form a pattern of openingsor fenestrations in the thin-film device, such as will be describedbelow with respect to FIG. 12. According to an important feature of theinvention, the method of producing a thin-film device can be extended toproduce micro-sized, precisely shaped and spaced openings or in thefilm. In this embodiment, fenestration patterns are selectively etchedin TiNi thin film, either before or after the above annealing step, toenhance mechanical flexibility of the film, to permit fluid to flowthrough, to increase the expansion rate of the device or achieveimproved adhesion to vascular-wall structure. A positive photoresist isspun on the thin film/silicon mandrel. One preferred photoresistmaterial is Olin OCG825; other suitable materials are available fromalternative vendors. The photoresist and thin film TiNi is thenphoto-lithographically patterned and etched, respectively. The etchantis, for example, a mixture of nitric acid and buffered oxide etchcontaining hydrogen fluoride. Fenestrations as small as 25microns.times.25 microns in the film have been created. More generally,fenestrations and spacing between adjacent fenestrations may havedimensions in the 5-50 micron size range or larger.

In another embodiment, the method is adapted to produce a thin-filmdevice having internal ribs or struts. In this embodiment, the coatedmandrel is first provided with structural members or ribs applied ordeposited on the coated surface, to serve as structural members in athin-film device as illustrated below in FIG. 7. The structural membersare preferably deposited or placed circumferentially about the coatedmandrel at one or more positions along the mandrel. The ribs may be, forexample, nickel/titanium wire or strips, or some other metal or polymermaterials upon which a thin-film expanse can be deposited. The surfacemust be coated or polished to a sub-micron finish for TiNi to besuccessfully sputtered onto the mandrel after placement of ribstructure.

III. Properties of the Thin-Film Expanse

Narrow strips of thin film prepared as above were prepared fortransformation temperature measurements and stress-strain measurements.To measure transformation temperature, each thin film sample was heatedand cooled while changes in voltage were measured and recorded using a4-probe constant-current technique to produce temperature versusresistivity data.

FIG. 2 shows a typical resistivity versus temperature curve of a TiNifilm. The transformation temperatures of the alloy are as follows:

Martensite start (M_(s))   −30° C. Martensite finish (M_(f))   −80° C.Austenite start (A_(s))     0° C. Austenite finish (A_(f))  12-15° C.

Since the A_(f) of this thin film alloy is below body temperature, it iswell suited to medical devices that are actuated within the bloodvessel.

In stress-strain measurements, film samples 20 mm.times.1 mm.times.5microns in size were used. The deformation fixture used allowed thedeformation at a constant temperature in the temperature range from −50°C. to +90° C. by immersion in an alcohol or water bath. The forceapplied to the sample and the sample elongation was measuredrespectively by a strain gage and an LVDT connected to a computer.LABVIEW™ software was used for collecting the data and plotting thestress-strain and resistivity graphs.

FIG. 3 illustrates a stress-strain curve for TiNi thin film at 38° C.The loading plateau for the film is at about 300 MPa (˜45 kpsi) andunloading plateau is at about 150 MPa (˜22 kpsi). The thin film clearlyexhibits superelastic behavior at body temperature that makes this anexcellent material for medical devices, particular miniature implantabledevices.

IV. Exemplary Devices

In another aspect, the invention includes a device formed of a seamlessthin-film expanse, in accordance with the method above. The “seamless”feature refers to the fact that the expanse forms a continuous surfacewithout interior edges. The important features of devices formed inaccordance with the above method are as follows:

The devices are formed of a sputtered nitinol shape memory alloy. Theexpanse is formed by sputtering a thin film from a titanium/nickel alloytarget, as described above. The thin-film material defines, in anaustenitic state, an open, interior volume. The open interior volume isthe volume of the space defined by the interior of the expanse. Theexpanse in the device has a film thickness of between 0.5 and 1001microns, preferably 2-50 microns, more preferably 5-50 microns, and asubstantially uniform in thickness and composition throughout theexpanse. The thin-film expanse has an austenite finish temperature A_(f)below 37° C. and demonstrates a stress/strain recovery greater than 3%at 37° C., where the expanse can be deformed into a substantiallycompacted configuration in a martensitic state.

One exemplary device is shown in FIGS. 4-6, where a cylindricalthin-film expanse forms an intraluminal a stent 22. The stent hastypical dimensions of about 5-75 microns film thickness, 5-50 mm inlength, and 1-10 mm in diameter, in its open conditions shown in FIGS. 4and 5. A compacted or “folded” configuration is illustrated in FIG. 6,showing stent 22 in a front-on view. As seen, the dimensions of thestent have been reduced considerably in the compacted configuration,allowing the stent, for example, to be delivered through a catheter to avascular site in need of a stent, e.g., in a compacted, stress-inducedmartensite form. Upon release of the stent from the catheter at thetarget site, the stent regains its fully austenitic, open form, with itsouter surface impinging against the walls of the vessel.

A variety of other devices or articles are encompassed by the invention.Shown in FIG. 7 is a sock-like device 24 formed of a thin-film expanse25 and supported internally by structural members 26. The structuralribs may be disposed in a circumferential direction, as shown, or in alongitudinal direction, like the struts in an umbrella. This device canbe formed as described above, on a cone-shaped mandrel, where themandrel is first coated prior to sputtering the thin-film expanse, andthe structural members are formed on the mandrel prior to sputtering.The device may be fenestrated, as illustrated in FIG. 9, and may have awire or other guide structure attached, for example, for pulling thedevice through an internal vessel, where the device acts like a filter.

In another embodiment the device is a hemispherical cap device 30, e.g.,for use as a vaso-occlusive agent for treating an aneurysm. Also asdiscussed above, the thin-film device may be further etched, e.g., byphotolithographic etching, to produce a device, such as stent 32 in FIG.9, having defined-shape, size and position fenestrations. Fenestrationpatterns as small as 25 microns.times.25 microns have been etched in thefilm using photolithographic techniques.

FIG. 9 shows a TiNi thin film stent 30 formed of a thin-film expanse 32having fenestrations or windows, such as windows 34, formed therein.Windows 25 microns×25 microns with spacing of about 10 microns betweenthe adjacent openings has been achieved. Since fenestrations areproduced by using photolithographic technique, very precise, clean andsharp edges can be achieved. The ability to etch micrometer scalefeatures with an excellent etching quality allows for the production ofdevices such as implantable filters, or drug-release devices.

While the invention has been described with reference to particularembodiments and conditions, it will be appreciated that a variety ofchanges and modifications may be made without departing from the scopeof the invention.

1. A method of forming a thin-film device, comprising: placing a mandrelin a magnetron sputtering device, the mandrel having an exposed,etchable outer layer; providing the magnetron sputtering device with aTiNi alloy target; sputter depositing material from the TiNi alloytarget to the mandrel while moving the mandrel relative to the TiNialloy target to thereby achieve substantially uniform sputter depositionof the TiNi alloy over the exposed outer layer of the mandrel until adesired thin-film alloy thickness is formed on the mandrel; and heatingthe deposited thin-film alloy on the mandrel under annealing conditionsto thereby anneal the thin-film alloy.
 2. The method of claim 1, whereinthe sputter depositing occurs under low-pressure, low-oxygen condition.3. The method of claim 1, further comprising exposing the mandrel anddeposited thin-film alloy to an etchant, under conditions effective todissolve the outer layer of the mandrel, and removing the thin-filmdevice so formed from mandrel.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein theTiNi alloy target has a composition of between about 48 to 51 atomicpercent nickel.
 5. The method of claim 3, wherein the outer layer isformed from a material selected from the group consisting of chromium,aluminum, and copper, and the etchant is selected from the groupconsisting of chrome etch, potassium hydroxide, and nitric acid.
 6. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the mandrel is rotated during the sputtering.7. The method of claim 1, wherein the mandrel is coated with polyimideto form a smooth surface before sputtering to ensure a continuous layerof deposited material.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the exposedmandrel surface has a shape selected from the group consisting of (i)cylindrical, (ii) sock-like, and (iii) hemispherical.
 9. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the depositing is carried out until a film thickness ofbetween 2 to 50 microns is reached.
 10. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising applying structural members to the mandrel prior to sputterdepositing the thin-film thereon, to thereby form structural members inthe formed device.
 11. The method of claim 1, for use in forming afenestrated thin-film device, which further includes forming on theannealed thin-film, a resist layer containing a pattern of openings, andexposing the coated thin-film with a solvent under condition effectiveto create fenestrations in the thin-film corresponding to the pattern ofopenings.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the fenestrations havedimensions and interfenestration spacings of between about 10-50microns.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the thin-film device has anaustenitic finish temperature A_(f) below 37° C.
 14. The method of claim13, wherein the thin-film device is characterized by a four-pointresistivity measurement in which the temperature is cycled to above 100°C. and below 0° C.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the annealingconditions include heating the thin-film alloy in a vacuum at 500-550°C.
 16. The method of claim 19, wherein the depositing material issputtered to the mandrel under conditions including a pressure below10⁻⁵ Torr; the predominant gas being an inert gas; and an amount ofoxygen which is below 0.1 percent.